Relacións entre a economía, a co-adaptabilidade e a resiliencia dos ecosistemas mariños
ISSN: 1132-2799
Ano de publicación: 2011
Volume: 20
Número: 2
Páxinas: 177-200
Tipo: Artigo
Outras publicacións en: Revista galega de economía: Publicación Interdisciplinar da Facultade de Ciencias Económicas e Empresariais
Resumo
La alteración humana de los ecosistemas marinos es importante, y continúa crecien-do como resultado de las diferentes amenazas antropogénicas. Frente a esta problemática, el término �resiliencia� examina la capacidad de los sistemas socioecológicos para superar un es-trés y recuperarse o, incluso, para endogeneizar los cambios y transcenderlos. Este trabajo constituye un avance teórico que examina la magnitud y las características de la resiliencia co-mo capacidad para absorber los cambios que sufren los ecosistemas marinos. Igualmente, se exploran las relaciones entre la capacidad adaptativa de los ecosistemas ante las modificacio-nes del conocimiento local de los usuarios sobre los recursos marinos, así como los atributos de una gobernanza sostenible, y las interacciones entre usuarios e instituciones formales y no in-formales. Por último, se presenta una discusión y una reflexión sobre el principio de precaución como el paradigma universalmente válido para la nueva gestión de los recursos marinos.
Referencias bibliográficas
- Agnew, D.; Hill, S.L.; Beddington, J.R.; Purchase, L.V.; Wakeford, R.C. (2005): "Sustainability and Management of Southwest Atlantic Squid Fisheries", Bulletin of Ma-rine Science, 76 (2), pp. 579-593.
- Agnew, D.; Pearce, J.; Pramod, G.; Watson, R.; Beddington, J.R.; Pitcher, T.J. (2009): "Estimating the Worldwide Extent of Illegal Fishing", PloS ONE, 4 (2), p. 4570.
- Allison, E.; Perry, L.; Badjeck, M.C.; Adger, W.N.; Brown, K.; Conway, D.; Halls, A.S.; Pilling, G.M.; Reynolds, J.D.; Neil, L.; Andrew, N.L.; Dulvy, N.K. (2009): "Vulnerability of National Economies to the Impacts of Climate Change on Fisheries", Fish and Fisheries, 1, pp. 2-19.
- Álvarez Salgado, X.M.; Fernández Reiriz, M.J.; Labarta, U.; Filguera, R.; Peteiro, L.; Figueiras, F.G.; Piedracoba, S.; Rosón, G. (2009): "Influencia do cambio climático no cultivo de mexillón das rías galegas", en V.P. Muñuzuri, M. Fernández Ca-ñamero e J.L. Gómez Gesteira [coord.]: Evidencias do cambio climático en Galicia, pp. 373-390. Xunta de Galicia, Consellería do Medio e Desenvolvemento Sostible.
- Barry, J.P.; Baxter, C.H.; Sagarin, R.D.; Gilman, S.E. (1995): "Climate-Related, Long-Term Faunal Changes in a California Rocky Intertidal Community", Science, 267, pp. 672-675.
- Beare, D.J.; Burns, F.; Greig, A.(2004): "Long-Term Increases in Prevalence of North Sea Fishes Having Southern Biogeographic Affinities", Marine Ecology Progress Series, 284, pp. 269-278.
- Beaugrand, G.; Reid, P.C.; Ibanez, F.; Lindley, J.A.; Edwards, M. (2002): "Reorgani-zation of North Atlantic Marine Copepod Biodiversity and Climate", Science, 296, pp. 1692-1694.
- Beddington, J.R.; Agnew, D.J.; Clark, C.W. (2007): "Current Problems in the Manage-ment of Marine Fisheries", Science, 22 (316), pp. 1713-1716.
- Beddington, J.R.; Kirkwood, G.P. (2007): "Fisheries", en R.M. May e A.R. McLean [ed.]: Theoretical Ecology: Principles and Applications, pp. 148-157. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
- Berge, J.; Johnsen, G.; Nilsen, F.; Gulliksen, B.; Slagstad, D. (2005): "Ocean Tempe-rature Oscillations Enable Reappearance of Blue Mussels Mytilus edulis in Svalbard After a 1000 Year Absence", Marine Ecology Progress Series, 303, pp. 167-175.
- Berkes, F.; Folke, C. [ed.] (1998): Linking Social and Ecological Systems: Management Practices and Social Mechanisms for Building Resilience. Cambridge: Cambridge Uni-versity Press.
- Berkes, F.; Folke, C. (2002): "Back to the Future: Ecosystem Dynamics and Local Knowledge", en L.H. Gunderson e C.S. Holling [ed.]: Panarchy: Understanding Trans-formations in Human and Natural Systems, pp. 121-146. Washington, D.C.: Island Press.
- Berman, M.; Sumaila, U.R. (2006): "Discounting, Amenity Values, and Marine Ecosys-tem Restoration", Marine Resource Economics, 21, pp. 211-219.
- Blanchard, J.L.; Mills, C.; Jennings, S.; Fox, C.J.; Rackham, B.D.; Eastwood, P.D.; O'Brien, C.M. (2005): "Distribution-Abundance Relationships for North Sea Atlantic Cod (Gadus morhua): Observation Versus Theory", Canadian Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences, 62, pp. 2001-2009.
- Bode, A.; Cabanas, J.M.; Porteiro, C.; Santos, M.B. (2009): "Variabilidade interanual da sardiña en Galicia e na rexión ibérica", en V.P. Muñuzuri, M. Fernández Cañamero e J.L. Gómez Gesteira [coord.]: Evidencias do cambio climático en Galicia, pp. 341-354. Xunta de Galicia, Consellería do Medio e Desenvolvemento Sostible.
- Borja, A.; Bricker, S.; Dauer, D.M.; Demetriades, N.; Ferreira, J.G.; Forbes, A.T.; Hutchings, P.; Jia, X.; Kenchington, R.; Marques, J.C.; Zhu, C. (2008) "Overview of Integrative Tools and Methods in Assessing Ecological Integrity in Estuarine and Coastal Systems Worldwide", Marine Pollution Bulletin, 56, pp. 1519-1537.
- Branch, T. (2008): "Not all Fisheries will be Collapsed in 2048", Marine Policy, 32 (1), pp. 38-39.
- Brander, K. (2006): Assessment of Possible Impacts of Climate Change on Fisheries. Ber-lin: Wissenchaftlicher Beirat der Bundesregierung Globale Umweltveränderungen.
- Caddy, J. (1997): "Checks and Balances in the Management of Marine Fish Stocks: Orga-nizational Requirements for a Limit Point Approach", Fisheries Research, 30, pp. 1-15.
- Castilla, J.C.; Defeo, O. (2005): "Paradigm Shifts Needed for World Fisheries", Science, 309, pp. 1324-1325.
- Cheung, W.; Sumaila, U.R. (2008): "Trade-Offs Between Conservation And Socio-Eco-nomic Objectives in Managing a Tropical Marine Ecosystem", Ecological Economics, 66, pp. 193-210.
- Cheung, W.; Watson, R.; Morato, T.; Pitcher, T.J.; Pauly, D. (2007): "Intrinsic Vulne-rability in the Global Fish Catch", Marine Ecology Progress Series, 333, pp. 1-12.
- Clark, R.A.; Fox, C.J.; Viner, D.; Livermore, M. (2003): "North Sea Cod and Climate Change-Modelling the Effects of Temperature on Population Dynamics", Global Chan-ge Biology, 9 (11), pp. 1669-1680.
- Costanza, R.; Andrade, F.; Antunes, P.; Van der Belt, M.; Boesch, D.; Boersma, D.; Catarino, F.; Hanna, S.; Limburg, K.; Low, B.; Molitor, M.; Gil Pereira, J.; Rayner, S.; Santos, R.; Wilson, J.; Young, M. (1999): "Ecological Economics and Sustainable Governance of the Oceans", Ecological Economics, 31(1), pp. 171-187.
- Daly, H.E. (1997): "Medio ambiente y desarrollo sostenible: más allá del informe Brund-tland", en R. Goodland [coord.]: De la economía del mundo vacío a la economía del mun-do lleno, pp. 37-50. Trotta.
- Dasgupta, P. (2001): Human Well-Being and the Natural Environment. New York: Ox-ford University Press.
- Davies, R.W.; Cripps, S.J.; Nickson, A.; Porter, G. (2009): "Defining and Estimating Global Marine Fisheries By-Catch", Marine Policy, 33, pp. 661-672.
- Dietz, T.; Ostrom, E.; Stern, P. (2003): "The Struggle to Govern the Commons", Science, 302 (5652), pp. 1907-1912.
- Döring, R.; Egelkraut, T. (2008): "Investing in Natural Capital as Management Strategy in Fisheries: The Case of the Baltic Sea Cod Fishery", Ecological Economics, 64 (3), pp. 634-642.
- Dulvy, N.K.; Rogers, S.I.; Jennings, S.; Vannesa, S.; Dye, S.R.; Skjoldal, H.R. (2008): "Climate Change and Deeping of the North Sea Fish Assemblage: A Biotic Indi-cator of Warming Seas", Journal of Applied Ecology, 45, pp. 1029-1039.
- Essington, T. (2001): "The Precautionary Approach in Fisheries Management: The Devil is the Details", Trends in Ecology and Evolution, 16 (3), pp. 121-122.
- Fogarty, M.; Incze, L.; Hayhoe, K.; Mountain, D.M.; Manning, J. (2008): "Potential Climate Change Impacts on Atlantic Cod (Gadus morhua) off the Northeastern USA", Strategies of Global Changes 13, pp. 452-466.
- Folke, C.; Carpenter, S.; Walker, B.; Scheffer, M.; Elmqvist, T.; Gunderson, L.; Holling, C.S. (2004): "Regime Shifts, Resilience, and Biodiversity in Ecosystem Mana-gement", Annual Review of Ecology and Evolution Systems, 35, pp. 557-581.
- Folke, C.; Colding, J.; Berkes, F. (2002): "Synthesis: Building Resilience and Adaptive Capacity in Social-Ecological Systems", en F. Berkes, C. Folke e J. Colding [ed.]: Navi-gating Social-Ecological Systems: Building Resilience for Complexity and Change, pp. 352-387. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
- Folke, C.; Holling, C.S.; Perrings, C. (1996): "Biological Diversity, Ecosystems, and the Human Scale", Ecological Applications, 6 (4), pp. 1018-1024.
- Folke, C.; Pitchard, L.; Berkes, F.; Colding, J.; Svedin, U. (2007): "The Problem of Fit between Ecosystems and Institutions: Ten Years Later", Ecology and Society, 12 (1), p. 30.
- Froese, R.; Stern-Pirlot, A.; Kesner-Reyes, K. (2008): "Out of New Stocks in 2020: A Comment on Not All Fisheries Will be Collapsed in 2048", Marine Policy, 33, pp. 180-181.
- García, S.M.; Zerbi, A.; Aliaume, C.; Do Chi, T.; Lasserre, G. (2003): The Ecosystem Approach to Fisheries, Issues, Terminology, Principles, Institutional Foundations, Imple-mentation and Outlook. (FAO Fisheries Technical Paper, 443). Rome: FAO.
- Genner, M.J.; Sims, D.W.; Wearmouth, V.J.; Southall, E.J.; Southward, A.J.; Henderson, P.A.; Hawkins, S.J. (2004): "Regional Climatic Warming Drives Long-Term Community Changes of British Marine Fish", Proceedings of the Royal Society of London Series B-Biological Sciences, 271, pp. 655-661.
- Gitay, H.; Brown, S.D.; Easterling, W.; Jallow, B. (2001): "Ecosystems and Their Goods and Services", en Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC):Climate Change 2001: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability, pp. 237-315. (Working Group II Contribution to the Third Assessment Report of the IPCC). Cambridge: Cambridge Uni-versity Press.
- Grafton, R.Q.; Kompas, T.; Hilborn, R. (2007): "Economics of Overexploitation Revi-sited", Science, 318, p.1601.
- Hannesson, R. (2007): "Geographical Distribution of Fish Catches and Temperature Va-riations in the Northeast Atlantic Since 1945", Marine Policy, 31 (1), pp. 32-39.
- Hassan, R.; Scholes, R.; Ash, N. [ed.] (2005): Ecosystems and Human Well-Being: Cu-rrent State and Trends, vol. 1: "Findings of the Condition and Trends Working Group of the Millennium Ecosystem Assessment". Washington, D.C.: Island Press.
- Hiddink, J.G.; Hofstede, R.T. (2008): "Climate Induced Increases in Species Richness of Marine Fishes", Global Change Biology, 14, pp. 453-460.
- Hilborn, R. (2007a): "Defining Success in Fisheries and Conflicts in Objectives", Marine Policy, 31 (4), pp. 455-482.
- Hilborn, R. (2007b): "Reinterpreting the State of Fisheries and Heir Management", Ecosystems, 10, pp. 1362-1369.
- Hilborn, R.; Branco, T.; Ernst, B.; Magnusson, A.; Minte-Vera, C.V.; Scheuerell, M.D.;Valero, J.L. (2003): "State of the World's Fisheries", Annual Review of Environ-ment and Resources, 28, pp. 359-399.
- Hilborn, R.; Maguire, J.J.; Parma, A.; Rosenberg, A.A. (2001): "The Precautionary Approach and Risk Management: Can they Increase the Probability of Successes in Fishery Management?", Canadian Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Science, 58 (1), pp. 99-107.
- Hilborn, R.; Orensanz, J.M.; Parma, A. (2005): "Institutions, Incentives and the Future of Fisheries", Philosophical Transactions of The Royal Society, 360, pp. 47-57.
- Hilborn, R.; Walters, C. (1992): Quantitative Fisheries Stock Assessment, Choice, Dynamics and Uncertainty. New York: Chapman and Hall.
- Holding, J.; Folke, C. (2001): "Social Taboos: «Invisible» Systems of Local Resource Management and Biological Conservation", Ecological Applications, 11 (2), pp. 584-600.
- Holling, C.S. (1973): "Resilience and Stability of Ecological Systems", Annual Review of Ecology and Systems, 4, pp. 1-23.
- Holling, C.S. (1978): Adaptive Environmental Assessment and Management. London: Wi-ley.
- Holling, C.S. (1986): "The Resilience of Terrestrial Ecosystems; Local Surprise and Glo-bal Change", en W.C. Clark e R.E. Munn [ed.]:Sustainable Development of the Biosphere, pp. 292-317. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
- Hughes, T.P.; Bellwood, D.R.; Folke, C.; Steneckc, R.S.; Wilson, J.D. (2005): "New Paradigms for Supporting the Resilience of Marine Ecosystems", Trends in Ecology & Evolution, 20 (7), pp. 380-386.
- Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) (2007a): Climate Change 2007: The Physical Science Basis. (Contribution of Working Group I to the Fourth As-sessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change). Cambridge: Cam-bridge University Press.
- Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) (2007b): Climate Change 2007: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability. (Contribution of Working Group II to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change). Cambrid-ge: Cambridge University Press.
- Kelleher, K. (2005): Discards in the World's Marine Fisheries: An Update. (FAO Fishe-ries Technical Paper, 470). Rome: FAO.
- Lebel, L.; Anderies, J.M.; Campbell, B.; Folke, C.; Hatfield-Dodds, S.; Hughes, T.P.; Wilson, J. (2006): "Governance and the Capacity to Manage Resilience in Regional So-cial-Ecological Systems", Ecology And Society, 11 (1), p. 19.
- Lehodey, P.; Alheit, J.; Barange, M.;Baumgartner, T.; Beaugrand, G.; Drink-water, K.; Fromentin, J.M.; Hare, S.R.; Ottersen, G.; Perry, R.I.; Roy, C.; Van der Lingen, C.D.; Werner, F. (2006): "Climate Variability, Fish, and Fisheries", Journal of Climate, 19, pp. 5009-5030.
- Lima, F.P.; Queiroz, N.; Ribeiro, P.A.; Hawkins, S.J.; Santos, A.M. (2006): "Recent Changes in the Distribution of a Marine Gastropod, Patella Rustica Linnaeus, 1758, and Their Relationship to Unusual Climatic Events", Journal of Biogeography, 33, pp. 812-822.
- Lough, J. (2007): "Climate and Climate Change on the Great Barrier Reef", en J.E. John-son e P.A. Marshall [ed.]: Climate Change and the Great Barrier Reef, pp. 15-50. Towns-ville: Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Authority and Australian Greenhouse Office.
- Loukos, H.; Monfray, P.; Bopp, L.; Lehodey, P. (2003): "Potential Changes in Skipjack Tuna (Katsuwonus pelamis) Habitat from a Global Warming Scenario: Modelling Ap-proach And Preliminary Results", Fisheries Oceanography, 12, pp. 474-482.
- Martens, P.; Beusekom, J.E. (2008): "Zooplankton Response to a Warmer Northern Wadden Sea", Helgoland Marine Research, 62, pp. 1438-3888.
- McClanahan, R.A. (2001): "The Effect of Marine Reserves and Habitat on Populations of East African Coral Reef Fishes", Ecological Applications, 11 (2), pp. 559-569.
- Mieszkowska, N.; Hawkins, S.J.; Burrows, M.T.; Kendall, M.A. (2007): "Long-Term Changes in the Geographic Distribution and Population Structures of Osilinus Lineatus (Gastropoda: Trochidae) in Britain and Ireland", Journal of the Marine Biological Asso-ciation of the United Kingdom, 87, pp. 537-545.
- Mieszkowska, N.; Kendall, M.A.; Hawkins, S.J.; Leaper, R.; Williamson, P.; Hardman-Mountford, N.J.; Southward, A.J. (2006): "Changes in the Range of Some Common Rocky Shore Species in Britain-A Response to Climate Change?", Hydrobio-logia, 555, pp. 241-251.
- Morato, T.; Watson, R.; Pitcher, T.J.; Pauly, D. (2006): "Fishing Down The Deep", Fish and Fisheries, 7, pp. 24-34.
- MRAG; MG Otero; PolEM (2008): Analysis of the Economic and Social Importance of Community Fishing Fleet Using Bottom Gears in the High Seas. London: MRAG.
- Mueter, F.J.; Litzow, M.A. (2008): "Sea Ice Retreat Alters the Biogeography of the Be-ring Sea Continental Shelf", Ecological Applications, 18 (2), pp. 309-320.
- Munday, P.L.; Jones, G.P.; Pratchett, M.S.; Williams, A.J. (2008): "Climate Change and the Future for Coral Reef Fishes", Fish And Fisheries, 9, pp. 261-285.
- Murawski, S. (1993): "Climate Change and Marine Fish Distributions: Forecasting from Historical Analogy", Transactions of the American Fisheries Society, 112, pp. 647-658.
- Murawski, S.; Methot, R.; Tromble, G. (2007): "Biodiversity Loss in the Ocean: How Bad Is It?", Science, 316 (5829), pp. 1281-1284.
- Myers, R.A.; Worm, B. (2003): "Rapid Worldwide Depletion of Predatory Fish Commu-nities", Nature, 423, pp. 280-283.
- Nicholls, R.J.; Wong, P.P.; Burkett, V.R.; Codignotto, J.O.; Hay, J.E.; Mclean, R.F.; Ragoonaden, S.; Woodroffe, C.D. (2007): "Coastal Systems And Low-Lying Areas. Climate Change 2007: Impacts, Adaptation And Vulnerability", en M.L. Parry, O.F. Can-ziani, J.P. Palutikof, P.J. van der Linden e C.E. Hanson [ed.]:Contribution of Working Group IIto the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, pp. 315-356. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
- Ostrom, E.; Burger, J.; Field, C.B.; Norgaard, R.B.; Policansky, D. (1999): "Revisi-ting The Commons: Local Lessons, Global Challenges", Science, 284, pp. 278-282.
- Otero, J.; González, A.F.; Guerra, A.; Álvarez Salgado, X.M. (2009): "Efectos do clima sobre o polbo común", en V.P. Muñuzuri, M. Fernández Cañamero e J.L. Gómez Gesteira [coord.]: Evidencias do cambio climático en Galicia, pp. 403-421. Xunta de Ga-licia, Consellería do Medio e Desenvolvemento Sostible.
- Pauly, D.; Alder, J.; Bennet, E.; Christensen, V.; Tyedmers, T.; Watson, R. (2003): "The Future For Fisheries", Science, 302, pp. 1359-1361.
- Pauly, D.; Palomares, M.L. (2005): "Fishing Down Marine Food Web: It is Far More Pervasive Than we Thought", Bulletin of Marine Science, 76 (2), pp. 197-211.
- Perry, R.I.; Low, P.J.; Ellis, J.R.; Reynolds, J.D. (2005): "Climate Change and Distribu-tion Shifts in Marine Fishes", Science, 308, pp. 1912-1915.
- Pikitch, E.K.; Santora, C.; Babcock, E.A.; Bakun, A.; Bonfil, R.; Conover, D.O.; Dayton, P.; Doukakis, P.; Fluharty, D.; Heneman, B.; Houde, E.D.; Link, J.; Livingston, P.A.; Mangel, M.; Mcallister, M.K.; Pope, J.; Sainsbury, K.J. (2004): "Ecosystem-Based Fishery Management", Science, 305, pp. 346-347.
- Pinkerton, E. [ed.] (1989): Co-operative Management of Local Fisheries. Vancouver: University of British Columbia Press.
- Pitcher, T.J.; Kalikoski, D.B.; Short, K.; Varkey, D.; Pramoda, G. (2008): "An Eva-luation of Progress in Implementing Ecosystem-Based Management of Fisheries in 33 Countries", Marine Policy, 33 (2), pp. 223-232.
- Reynolds, J.D.; Dulvy, N.K.; Goodwin, N.B.; Hutchings, J.A. (2005): "Biology of Ex-tinction Risk in Marine Fishes", Proceedings of the Royal Society B, 272, pp. 2337-2344.
- Rivadeneira, M.M.; Fernández, M. (2005): "Shifts in Southern Endpoints of Distribu-tion in Rocky Intertidal Species Along the South-Eastern Pacific Coast", Journal of Bio-geography, 32, pp. 203-209.
- Rose, G.A. (2004): "Reconciling Overfishing and Climate Change with Stock Dynamics of Atlantic Cod (Gadus morhua) Over 500 Years", Canadian Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences, 61, pp. 1553-1557.
- Rosón, G.; Cabanas, J.M.; Pérez, F.F.; Herrera Cortijo, J.L.; Ruiz Villarreal, M.; Castro, C.G.; Piedracoba, S.; Álvarez Salgado, X.A. (2009): "Evidencias do cambio climático na hidrografía e a dinámica das rías e da plataforma galega", en V.P. Muñuzuri, M. Fernández Cañamero e J.L. Gómez Gesteira [coord.]: Evidencias do cambio climático en Galicia, pp. 287-302. Xunta de Galicia, Consellería do Medio e Desenvolvemento Sos-tible.
- Royal Society (2005): Science News. Royal Society. (http://www.royalsoc.ac.uk/news. asp?id=3256).
- Ruiz Villarreal, M.; Álvarez Salgado, X.A.; Cabanas, J.M.; Fernández Pérez, F.; Gónzález Castro, C.; Herrera Cortijo, J.L.; Piedracoba Varela, S.; Rosón Porto, G.(2009): "Variabilidade climática e tendencias decadais nos forzamentos meteorolóxicos e as propiedades das augas adxacentes a Galicia", en V.P. Muñuzuri, M. Fernández Ca-ñamero e J.L. Gómez Gesteira [coord.]: Evidencias do cambio climático en Galicia, pp. 271-286. Xunta de Galicia, Consellería do Medio e Desenvolvemento Sostible.
- Sagarin, R.D.; Barry, J.P.; Gilman, S.E.; Baxter, C.H. (1999): "Climate-Related Chan-gein an Intertidal Community Over Short and Long Time Scales", Ecological Mo-nographs, 69, pp. 465-490.
- Sherman, L. (2006): "The Large Marine Ecosystem Network Approach to WSSD Tar-gets", Ocean and Coastal Management, 49 (9-10), pp. 640-648.
- Simkanin, C.; Power, A.M.; Myers, A.(2005): "Using Historical Data to Detect Temporal Changes in the Abundances of Intertidal Species on Irish Shores", Journal of the Marine Biological Association of the United Kingdom, 85, pp. 1329-1340.
- Southward, A.J.; Hawkins, S.J.; Burrows, M.T. (1995): "Seventy Years' Observations of Change in Distribution and Abundance of Zooplankton and Intertidal Organisms in the Western English Channelin Relation to Rising Sea Temperature", Journal of Thermal Bio-logy, 20, pp. 127-155.
- Stenevik, E.K.; Sundby, S. (2007): "Impacts of Climate Change on Commercial Fish Stocks in Norwegian Waters", Marine Policy, 31, pp. 19-31.
- Sumaila, U.R. (2007): "Challenges to Estimating the Benefits of Marine Protected Areas", Symposium and Workshop of the Nampan. Loreto (México).
- Varela, M.; Bode, A.; Gómez Figueiras, F.; Huete Ortega, M.; Marañón, E. (2009): "Variabilidade e tendencias interanuais no fitoplancto mariño das costas de Galicia", en V.P. Muñuzuri, M. Fernández Cañamero e J.L. Gómez Gesteira [coord.]: Evidencias do cambio climático en Galicia, pp. 327-340. Xunta de Galicia, Consellería do Medio e De-senvolvemento Sostible.
- Villasante, S.; Sumaila, S. (2010): "Estimating the Effects of Technological Efficiency on the European Fishing Fleet", Marine Policy, 34 (2), pp. 720-722.
- Vitousek, P.M.; Mooney, H.A.; Lubchenco, J.; Melillo, J.M. (1997): "Human Domina-tion of Earth's Ecosystems", Science, 277, pp. 494-499.
- Walker, B.; Holling, C.S.; Carpenter, S.R.; Kinzig, A (2004): "Resilience, Adaptabi-lity and Transformability in Social-Ecological Systems", Ecology And Society, 9 (2), p. 5.
- Walters, C.J. (1986): Adaptive Management of Renewable Resources. New York: McGraw-Hill.
- Walters, C.J.; Martell, J.D. (2004): Fisheries Ecology and Management. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
- Wang, M.; Overland, J.E.; Bond, N.A. (2009): "Climate Projections for Selected Large Marine Ecosystems", Journal of Marine Systems (no prelo).
- Winder, M.; Schindler, D.E. (2004): "Climate Change Uncouples Trophic Interactions in an Aquatic Ecosystem", Ecology, 85, pp. 2100-2106.
- World Bank (2009): The Sunken Billions: The Economic Justification for Fisheries Re-form. Washington, D.C.
- Worm, B.; Barbier, E.B.; Beaumont, N.; Duffy, J.E.; Folke, C.; Halpern, B.S.; Jackson, B.C.; Lotze, H.K.; Micheli, F.; Palumbi, S.R.; Sala, E.; Selkoe, K.A.; Stachowicz, J.J.; Watson, R. (2006): "Impacts of Biodiversity Loss on Ocean Ecosys-tem Services", Science, 314, pp. 787-790.
- Zacherl, D.; Gaines, S.D.; Lonhart, S. (2003): "The Limits to Biogeographical Distribu-tions: Insights from the Northward Range Extension of the Marine Snail, Kelletia kelletii (Forbes, 1852)", Journal of Biogeography, 30, pp. 913-924.
- Zeller, D.; Pauly, D. [ed.] (2007): "Reconstruction of Marine Fisheries Catches for Key Countries and Regions (1950-2005)", Fisheries Centre Research Reports, 15 (2).